The 399 references cited in the Forest Service's Draft Environmental Impact Statement.
157 of 399 cited sources (39%) are not freely obtainable by the public — paywalled, print-only, or dead links. A conclusion whose support the public cannot read cannot be meaningfully commented on.
USDA Forest Service. 2020. Rulemaking for Alaska Roadless Areas, Final Environmental Impact Statement. R10-MB-867b. Alaska Region, September 2020. Cited in the DEIS body as '2020 FEIS' (with pinpoint 'page 3-138'); absent from the References section. Included by the agency in the DEIS release package (Supporting Analysis).
USDA Forest Service. 2023. Service-wide Asset Summary report. Generated from the Forest Service's database of record, Natural Resource Management (NRM) (DEIS footnote 23). Cited only in a footnote; absent from the References section.
agency report
No online copy
USDA Forest Service. 2024. Roads Program Fact Sheet. Internal Engineering program summary of transportation program facts and data (DEIS footnote 22: 'summarizing various transportation program facts and data as tracked by the USDA Forest Service engineering program'). Cited only in a footnote; absent from the References section.
agency report
No online copy
Adams, P.W.; Froehlich, H.A. 1981. Compaction of Forest Soils. A Pacific Northwest Extension Publication (PNW217). l3 pp.
agency report
Web
Adams, D.M.; Haynes, R.W. 1996. The 1993 timber assessment market model: structure, projections, and policy simulations. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-368. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 58 p. https://www.fs.usda.gov/pnw/pubs/pnw_gtr368.pdf
Ager, A.A.; Evers, C.R.; Day, M.A.; Alcasena, F.J.; and Houtman, R. 2021. Planning for future fire: scenario analysis of an accelerated fuel reduction plan for the western United States. 2021. Landscape and Urban Planning, 215 (2021) 104212. https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_journals/2021/rmrs_2021_ager_a001.pdf
Akresh, M.E.; King, D.I.; McInvale, S.L.; Larkin, J.L.; D’Amato, A.W. 2023. Effects of Forest Management on the Conservation of Bird Communities in Eastern North America: A Meta-Analysis. Ecosphere 14(1): e4315. Website accessed 12/1/2025: https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.4315
Alizadeh, M.R., Adamowski, J., Nikoo, M.R., AghaKouchak, A., Dennison, P. and Sadegh, M., 2020. A century of observations reveals increasing likelihood of continental-scale compound dry-hot extremes. Science advances, 6(39), p.eaaz4571.
journal
Open access
Amman, M.; Böll, A.; Rickli, C.; Speck, T.; Holdenrieder, O. 2009. Significance of tree root decomposition for shallow landslides. Forest and Snow Landscape Research. 82: 79–94.
journal
No online copy
Anderson, H. W., M. D. Hoover, and K. G. Reinhart. 1976. Forest and water: Effects of forest management on floods, sedimentation, and water supply. General Tech. Rep. PSW-18: 115. Berkley, California: USDA Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest Experiment Station
agency report
Web
Andrews, K.M.; Langen, T.A.; Struijk, R.P.J.H. 2015. Reptiles. In Handbook of Road Ecology (eds R. van der Ree, D.J. Smith and C. Grilo). Website accessed 12/1/2025: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118568170.ch32
Arno, S.F.; Brown, J.K. 1991. Overcoming the paradox in managing wildland fire. Western Wildlands, 17(1), p. 40-46.
journal
No online copy
Askew, A.A.; White, E.M. In press. Resources Planning Act (RPA) regional assessment of outdoor recreation demand and trends to 2070. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-XXX. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Station. XX p.
agency report
No online copy
Asselin, H. 2015. Indigenous forest knowledge. Routledge Handbook of Forest Ecology. Chapter 41. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group. Berkes, F. (1999). Sacred Ecology: Traditional Ecological Knowledge and Resource Management. Taylor & Francis. New York. i
book
Paywalled
Audley, J.P.; Fettig, C.J.; Munson, A.S.; Runyon, J.B.; Mortenson, L.A.; Steed, B.E.; Gibson, K.E.; Jorgenson, C.L.; McKelvey, S.R.; McMillin, J.D.; Negron, J.F. 2020. Impacts of mountain pine beetle outbreaks on lodgepole pine forests in the Intermountain West, U.S., 2001-2019. Forest Ecology and Management. 475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2020.118403
Van Auken, O.W. 2009. Causes and consequences of woody plant encroachment into western North American grasslands. Journal of Environmental Management, Volume 90, Issue 10, July 2009, Pages 2931-2942. Website accessed 11/20/2025:
journal
Paywalled
Balch, J.K.; Bradley, B.A.; Abatzoglou, J.T.; Nagy, R.C.; Fusco, E.J.; Mahood, A.L. 2017. Human-started wildfires expand the fire niche across the United States. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(11), pp.2946-2951.
journal
Open access
Balch, J.K.; Iglesias, V.; Mahood, A.L.; Cook, M.C.; Amaral, C.; DeCastro, A.; Leyk, S.; McIntosh, T.L.; Nagy, R.C.; St. Denis, L.; Tuff, T., 2024. The fastest-growing and most destructive fires in the US (2001 to 2020). Science, 386(6720), pp.425-431.
journal
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Barndt, S.; Gray, A.; Hayward, G.; Hiemstra, C.; Kamoske, A.; Kleinsmith, S.; Krueger, J.; Palmer, M.; Pelz, K.; Salverson, W.; Schuler, T.; Schumacher, C.; Tilton, K.; Woodall, C. 2023. Mature and old growth forests: Definition, identification, and initial inventory on lands managed by the Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management. USDA Forest Service FS-1215a, Washington, DC. 63 p.
agency report
Free web
Barnett, T.P.; Pierce, D.W. 2009. Sustainable water deliveries from the Colorado River in a changing climate. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 106, 7334–7338.
journal
Open access
Barnett, T. P.; Pierce, D.W.; Hidalgo, H.G.; Bonfils, C.; Santer, B.D.; Das, T.; Bala, G.; Wood, A.W.; Nozawa, T.; Mirin, A.A.; Cayan, D.R.; Dettinger, M.D. 2008: Human-induced changes in the hydrology of the western United States. Science, 319, 1080–1083.
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Barrueto, M.; Forshner, A.; Whittington, J.; Clevenger, A.P.; Musiani, M. 2022. Protection status, human disturbance, snow cover and trapping drive density of a declining wolverine population in the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Sci Rep 12, 17412 (2022). Website accessed 12/1/2025: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-21499-4
Baxter, C.V.; Frissell, C.A.; Hauer, F.R.1999. Geomorphology, Logging Roads, and the Distribution of Bull Trout Spawning in a Forested River Basin: Implications for Management and Conservation, Transactions of the American Fisheries Society, Volume 128, Issue 5, September 1999, Pages 854–867 Website accessed 11/20/2025: https://doi.org/10.1577/1548-8659(1999)128<0854:GLRATD>2.0.CO;2
Beale, M.; Poulin, S.; Ivanyi, C.; Blouin-Demers, G. 2016. Anthropogenic Disturbance Affects Movement and Increases Concealment in Western Diamondback Rattlesnakes (Crotalus atrox). Journal of Herpetology, 50(2), 216-221, (1 June 2016). Website accessed 11/24/2025: https://doi.org/10.1670/14-112
Belval, E.J.; Pietruszka, B.M.; Viktora, A. 2025. The price of doing business: severe injuries in wildland firefighters in the United States by activity performed and hazard encountered. International Journal of Wildland Fire 34, WF25038. https://doi.org/10.1071/WF25038 ii
Bengston, D.N.; Xu, Z. 1995. Changing National Forest Values: a content analysis. Research Paper NC-323. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station. https://www.nrs.fs.usda.gov/pubs/rp/rp_nc323.pdf
Bengston, D.N.; Fan, D.P.; Celarier, D. N. 1999. A new approach to monitoring the social environment for natural resource management and policy: The case of US national forest benefits and values. Journal of Environmental Management. 56: 181-193. https://research.fs.usda.gov/treesearch/12188
Bengston, D.N.; Westphal, L.M.; Dockry, M.J. 2020. Back from the Future: The Backcasting Wheel for Mapping a Pathway to a Preferred Future. World Futures Review. 12(3): 270278. https://doi.org/10.1177/1946756720929724. https://www.fs.usda.gov/nrs/pubs/jrnl/2020/nrs_2020_bengston_001.pdf
Benson, T.J.; Anich, N.M.; Brown, J.D.; Bednarz, J.C. 2010. Habitat and Landscape Effects on Brood Parasitism, Nest Survival, and Fledgling Production in Swainson's Warblers. The Journal of Wildlife Management, 74: 81-93. Website accessed 11/25/2025: https://doi.org/10.2193/2008-442
Bigelow, D.P.; Borchers, A. 2012. Major Uses of Land in the United States. EIB-178, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, August 2017.
agency report
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Binkley, D.; Fisher, R.F. 2013. Ecology and management of forest soils. 4th ed. UK: WileyBlackwell. 362 p.
book
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Birdsey, R.A.; DellaSala, D.A.; Walker, W.; Gorelik, S. 2025. How much more carbon could be protected in mature and old-growth forests of the United States? Biological Conservation, 306, p.111114.
journal
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Blakey, R.V.; Webb, E.B.; Kesler, D.C.; Siegel, R.B.; Corcoran, D.; Johnson, M. 2019. Bats in a Changing Landscape: Linking Occupancy and Traits of a Diverse Montane Bat Community to Fire Regime. Ecology and Evolution 9 (9): 5324–37. Website accessed 1/6/2025: https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.5121
Bodelier, P.; Libochant, J.A.; Blom, W.P.M.; Laanbroek, H.J. 1996. Dynamics of nitrification and denitrification in root-oxygenated sediments and adaptation of ammonia-oxidizing iii bacteria to low-oxygen or anoxic habitats. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 62(11): 4100–4107. doi: 10.1128/aem.62.11.4100-4107.1996
journal
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Bosch, J.M.; Hewlett, J.D. 1982. A Review of Catchment Experiments to Determine the Effect of Vegetation Changes on Water Yield and Evapotranspiration. Hydrology 55: 2-23.
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Boulanger, J.; Stenhouse, G.B. 2014. The Impact of Roads on the Demography of Grizzly Bears in Alberta. PLoS ONE 9 (12): e115535. Website accessed 1/9/2026: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0115535
Brais, S. 2001. Persistence of soil compaction and effects on seedling growth in northwestern Quebec. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 65(4): 1263–1271. doi: 10.2136/sssaj2001.6541263x.
journal
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Brand, L. Arriana; George, T.L. 2001. Response of Passerine Birds to Forest Edge in Coast Redwood Forest Fragments. The Auk, Volume 118, Issue 3, 1 July 2001, Pages 678–686. Website accessed 12/19/2025: https://doi.org/10.1093/auk/118.3.678
Brehme, C.S.; Tracey, J.A.; McClenaghan, L.R.; Fisher, R.N. 2013. Permeability of roads to movement of scrubland lizards and small mammals. Conservation Biology, 27: 710-720. Website accessed 11/24/2025: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12081
Broders, H.G.; Forbes, G.J.; Thompson, I.D. 2006. Range extent and stand selection for roosting and foraging in forest-dwelling northern long-eared bats and little brown bats in the Greater Fundy Ecosystem, New Brunswick. Journal of Wildlife Management, 70(5), 1174-1184, (1 December 2006). Website accessed 12/5/2025: https://doi.org/10.2193/0022-541X(2006)70[1174:REASSF]2.0.CO;2
Brown, G.; Reed, P. 2000. Validation of a forest values typology for use in national forest planning. Forest Science, 46(2), 240-247.
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Brown, G.; Reed, P.; Raymond, C. 2020. Mapping place values: 10 lessons from two decades of public participation GIS empirical research. Applied Geography Vol. 116. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0143622819310355?via%3Dihub
Broyles, G. 2011. Fireline production rates. USDA Forest Service, National Technology & Development Program, Fire Management Report 1151– 1805. (San Dimas, CA)
agency report
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Burger, J.; Gochfeld, M.; Pletnikoff, K.; Snigaroff, R.; Snigaroff, D.; Stamm, T. 2008. Ecocultural attributes: evaluating ecological degradation in terms of ecological goods and services versus subsistence and tribal values. Risk Analysis, 28(5):1261–1272. iv
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Colorado Parks & Wildlife [CPW]. 2025. Living with Moose. Website accessed 1/5/2026: https://cpw.state.co.us/living-moose#4257225834-2631189940
Cajete, G. 2021. Native Science and Sustaining Indigenous Communities. In Traditional Ecological Knowledge: Learning from Indigenous Practices for Environmental Sustainability. (Nelson, M.K. & Shilling, D., eds.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom.
book
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Caldwell, P.; Muldoon, C.; Ford-Miniat, C.; Cohen, E.; Krieger, S.; Sun, G.; McNulty, S.; Bolstad, P.V. 2014. Quantifying the role of National Forest System lands in providing surface drinking water supply for the Southern United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. SRS-197. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Southern Research Station. 135 p. https://doi.org/10.2737/SRS-GTR-197
Cambi, M.; Certini, G.; Neri, F.; Marchi, E. 2015. The impact of heavy traffic on forest soils: A review. Forest Ecology and Management. 338: 124–138. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2014.11.022.
journal
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Campbell, M.J.; Gannon, B.M.; Rahman, O.; Stratton, R.D.; Dennison, P.E. 2024. Wildland Firefighter Estimated Ground Evacuation Time Modeling to Support Risk-Informed Decision-Making. Fire 2024, 7, 292. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7080292
Cardille, J.A.; Ventura, S.J.; Turner, M.G., 2001. Environmental and social factors influencing wildfires in the Upper Midwest, United States. Ecological applications, 11(1), pp.111127.
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Carter, K. 2005. The Effects of Temperature on Steelhead Trout, Coho Salmon, and Chinook Salmon Biology and Function by Life Stage, Implications for Klamath Basin TMDLs. California Regional Water Quality Control Board, North Coast Region. August 2005. Website accessed 11/25/2025: https://www.waterboards.ca.gov/northcoast/water_issues/programs/tmdls/shasta_river/06 0707/28appendixaetheeffectsoftemperatureonsteelheadtroutcohosalmonandchinooksalmo nbiologyandfunction.pdf
Chamberlin, T.W.; Harr, R.D.; Everest, F.H. 1991. Timber Harvesting, Silviculture, and Watershed Processes. In: Meehan, W.R., ed. Influences of Forest and Rangeland Management on Salmonid Fishes and Their Habitats. Special Publication. Bethesda Maryland: American Fisheries Society. pp. 181-205. v
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Chapman, T.B.; Veblen, T.T; Schoennagel, T. 2012. Spatiotemporal patterns of mountain pine beetle activity in the southern Rocky Mountains. Ecology. 93(10):2175-2185.
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Chase, M.H.; Fraterrigo, J.M.; Charles, B. Harmon-Threatt, A. 2023. Wild Bee Response to Forest Management Varies Seasonally and Is Mediated by Resource Availability. Forest Ecology and Management 548 (November): 121426. Website accessed 1/5/2026: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2023.121426
Chen, B.; Jin, Y. 2022. Spatial patterns and drivers for wildfire ignitions in California. Environmental Research Letters, 17(5), p.055004.
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Clark, D.; Hunter, W. 1992. “The impact of economic opportunity, amenities and fiscal factors on age-specific migration rates.” Journal of Regional Science 32(3): 349-365.
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Coates, P.S.; Milligan, M.C.; Prochazka, B.G.; Brussee, B.E.; O’Neil, S.T.; Lundblad, C.G.; Webster, S.C.; Weise, C.L.; Mathews, S.R.; Chenaille, M.P.; Aldridge, C.L.; O’Donnell, M.S.; Espinosa, S.P.; Sturgill, A.C.; Doherty, K.E.; Tull, J.C.; Miller, K.; Wiechman, L.A.; Abele, S.; Boone, J.; Stone, H.; Casazza, M.L. 2024, Status of greater sage-grouse in the Bi-State Distinct Population Segment—An evaluation of population trends, habitat selection, and efficacy of conservation actions: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 2024–1030, 74 p. Website accessed 1/7/2026: https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20241030
Cole, E.K.; Pope, M.D.; Anthony, R.G. 1997. “Effects of Road Management on Movement and Survival of Roosevelt Elk.” The Journal of Wildlife Management 61 (4): 1115. Website accessed 12/17/2025: https://doi.org/10.2307/3802109
Coleman, T.W.; Graves, A.D.; Heath, Z.; Flowers, R.W.; Hanavan, R.P.; Cluck, D.R.; Ryerson, D. 2018. Accuracy of aerial detection surveys for mapping insect and disease disturbances in the United States. Forest Ecology and Management. 430:321-336
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Colorado Parks & Wildlife [CPW]. 2025. Living with Moose. Website accessed 1/5/2026: https://cpw.state.co.us/living-moose#4257225834-2631189940
Congressional Research Service. 2022. Timber Harvesting on Federal Lands. CRS Report R45688. 23 p. Available at R45688 (congress.gov)
agency report
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Conlin, T.S.S.; van den Driessche, R. 1996. Short-term effects of soil compaction on growth of Pinus contorta seedlings. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 26(5): 727–739. doi: 10.1139/x26-082.
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Janowiak M.; Connelly, W.J.; Dante-Wood, K.; Domke, G.M.; Giardina, C.; Kayler, Z; Marcinkowski, K.; Ontl, T.; Rodriguez-Franco. C.; Swanston, C.; Woodall, C.W.; Buford, M. 2017. Considering Forest and Grassland Carbon in Land Management. USDA Forest Service General Technical Report WO-95. https://doi.org/10.2737/WO-GTR-95 xiv
Converse, S.J.; White, G.C.; Farris, K.L.; Zack, S. 2006. Small Mammals and Forest Fuel Reduction: National-scale Responses to Fire and Fire Surrogates. Ecological Applications 16 (5): 1717–29. Website accessed 12/19/2025: https://doi.org/10.1890/1051- 0761(2006)016%255B1717:SMAFFR%255D2.0.CO;2
Craigg, T.L.; Howes, S.W. 2007. Assessing quality in volcanic ash soils. In: Page-Dumroese, D.; Miller, R.; Mital, J.; [et al.], tech. eds. Volcanic-ash- derived forest soils of the Inland Northwest: Properties and implications for management and restoration; 2005 November 9–10; Coeur d’Alene, ID. Proceedings RMRS-P-44. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 47–66.
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Crawford, L.J.; Heinse, R.; Kimsey, M.J.; Page-Dumroese, D.S. 2021. Soil sustainability and harvest operations: A review. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-421. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 39 p. https://doi.org/10.2737/RMRS-GTR-421.
Cristan, R.; Aust, W.M.; Bolding, M.C.; Barrett, S.M.; Munsell, J.F. In. 2018. National status of state developed and implemented forestry best management practices for protecting water quality in the United States. Forest Ecology and Management. doi: 10.1016/j.foreco.2017.07.002.
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Crone, E.E.; Marler, M.; Pearson, D.E. 2009. Non-target effects of broadleaf herbicide on a native perennial forb: a demographic framework for assessing and minimizing impacts. Journal of Applied Ecology. 46: 673-682. Website accessed 11/24/2025: https://www.fs.usda.gov/rm/pubs_other/rmrs_2009_crone_e001.pdf
Daniels, M.C.; Braziunas, K.H.; Turner, M.G.; Ma, T.; Short, K.C.; Rissman, A.R. 2024. Multiple social and environmental factors affect wildland fire response of full or lessthan-full suppression. Journal of Environmental Management. 351: 119731. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119731 vii
De La Hunt. 1984. The Canons of Indian Treaty and Statutory Construction: A Proposal for Codification. University of Michigan Law School. University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform. 33 p. Available at The Canons of Indian Treaty and Statutory Construction: A Proposal for Codification (umich.edu)
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DellaSala, D.A.; Karr, J.R.; Olson, D.M. 2011. Roadless areas and clean water, Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 66:3, 78A-84A, DOI: 10.2489/jswc.66.3.78A
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Demir, M.; Makineci, E.; Comez, A.; Yilmaz, E. 2010. Impacts of repeated timber skidding on the chemical properties of topsoil, herbaceous cover and forest floor in an eastern beech (Fagus orientalis Lipsky) stand. Journal of Environmental Biology. 31: 477–482.
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Devenport, S.E.; Edgeley, C.M. Visitor Preferences and Human-Caused Wildfire Prevention: A Survey of Public Land Users in the US Southwest. J. For. 123, 171–196 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s44392-024-00003-y
Dickie, M.; Love, N.; Steenweg, R.; Lamb, C.T.; Polfus, J.; Ford, A.T. 2023. In search of evidence-based management targets: a synthesis of the effects of linear features on woodland caribou. Ecological Indicators 154: 110559. Website accessed 12/2/2025: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2023.110559
Diener, E.; Suh, E. 1997. Measuring quality of life: economic, social, and subjective indicators. Social Indicators Research. 40: 189-216. Dieter, C.A.; Maupin, M.A.; Caldwell, R.R.; Harris, M.A.; Ivahnenko, T.I., Lovelace, J.K.; Barber, N.L.; and Linsey, K.S. 2018, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1441, 65 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir1441.
Dieter, C.A.; Maupin, M.A.; Caldwell, R.R.; Harris, M.A.; Ivahnenko, T.I., Lovelace, J.K.; Barber, N.L.; and Linsey, K.S. 2018, Estimated use of water in the United States in 2015: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1441, 65 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/cir1441.
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Elliott, K.J.; Vose, J. 2011. The contribution of the Coweeta Hydrologic Laboratory to developing and understanding of long-term (1934-2008) changes in managed and unmanaged forests. Forest Ecology and Management. Forest Ecology and Management 261:900-910.
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Emery, M..; Wrobel, A.; Hansen, M.; Dockry, M.; Moser, W.K. 2014. Using Traditional Ecological Knowledge as a Basis for Targeted Forest Inventories: Paper Birch (Betula papyrifera) in the US Great Lakes Region. Journal of Forestry, 112 (2):207-214.
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English, D.B.K.; Froemke, P.; Hawkos, K. 2015. Paths more traveled: predicting future recreation pressures on America’s national forests and grasslands—a forests on the edge report. FS-1034. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 36 p. https://www.fs.usda.gov/sites/default/files/media/types/publication/field_pdf/paths-moretraveled-final-9-28-15.pdf
USDA Forest Service. 2025. Forest Service Manual 1900 — Planning, Chapter 1920 — Land Management Planning. Amendment 1900-2025-1, effective July 23, 2025. National Headquarters, Washington, DC. Cited in the DEIS body as FSM 1923.03(3); absent from the References section.
USDA Forest Service. Forest Service Manual 2300 — Recreation, Wilderness, and Related Resource Management. Chapter 2350 — Trail, River, and Similar Recreation Opportunities. National Headquarters (WO), Washington, DC. Cited in the DEIS body as FSM 2354.42d and FSM 2354.42g; absent from the References section.
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